@article {327249,
	title = {Field experiments find no evidence that chimpanzee nut cracking can be independently innovated.},
	journal = {Nat Hum Behav},
	volume = {6},
	year = {2022},
	month = {2022 Apr},
	pages = {487-494},
	abstract = {<p>Cumulative culture has been claimed a hallmark of human evolution. Yet, the uniqueness of human culture is heavily debated. The zone of latent solutions hypothesis states that only humans have cultural forms that require form-copying social learning and are culture-dependent. Non-human ape cultural behaviours are considered {\textquoteright}latent solutions{\textquoteright}, which can be independently (re-)innovated. Others claim that chimpanzees, like humans, have cumulative culture. Here, we use field experiments at Seringbara (Nimba Mountains, Guinea) to test whether chimpanzee nut cracking can be individually (re-)innovated. We provided: (1) palm nuts and stones, (2) palm fruit bunch, (3) cracked palm nuts and (4) Coula nuts and stones. Chimpanzee parties visited (n = 35) and explored (n = 11) the experiments but no nut cracking occurred. In these experiments, chimpanzees did not individually (re-)innovate nut cracking under ecologically valid conditions. Our null results are consistent with the hypothesis that chimpanzee nut cracking is a product of social learning.</p>
},
	keywords = {Animals, Feeding Behavior, Humans, Nuts, Pan troglodytes},
	issn = {2397-3374},
	doi = {10.1038/s41562-021-01272-9},
	author = {Koops, Kathelijne and Soumah, Aly Gaspard and van Leeuwen, Kelly L and Camara, Henry Didier and Matsuzawa, Tetsuro}
}
