Drumming

Drumming, or periodic non-verbal acoustic production via percussive activity, is present in virtually all human cultures. Such percussion is typically produced manually (i.e. using the hands), but can also involve the feet and/or the use of implements such as sticks, and is preferentially exercised on resonant surfaces. Though the central function of human drumming is unknown, it may serve a prosocial or communicative function based on the contexts in which it is commonly displayed (e.g. community gatherings, prayer/meditation, organized combat).

Some Old World primates also display periodic acoustic behavior. Chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas, for instance, have all been observed using limbs (typically hands, sometimes feet) on resonant objects in a manner similar to human hand drumming. Drumming has been observed throughout wild and captive chimpanzee populations and in gorillas who have not been exposed to others performing the behavior, suggesting that drumming in Old World apes is genetically-based and species-typical. Drumming by gorillas is typically performed on their own bodies (i.e. chest-beating) or the bodies of others, and often accompanies playful behavior in juveniles and display behaviors in adults. In contrast, chimpanzees tend to drum on resonant external objects such as the trunks/buttresses of trees, and have been observed returning to particularly resonant objects repeatedly to drum, indicating the coupling of the auditory output with the motor behavior. Buttress drumming by chimpanzees is primarily performed during travel in conjunction with vocal bouts, is unique between individuals, and is variable between chimpanzee populations. Such drumming bouts may thus function to coordinate movement and spacing of dispersed individuals within a community by producing individually distinctive long-distance signals. Captive macaques also occasionally produce salient rhythmic acoustic patterns using artificial objects. Since larger, more dominant macaques are most likely to drum, this behavior may serve to convey information about size or status, as larger macaques are capable of manipulating larger, heavier objects to produce acoustic signals. However, drumming has not been observed by macaques in the wild.

Drumming behavior is absent in orangutans, suggesting that drumming behavior in the primate lineage likely arose approximately 8-10 million years ago alongside divergence of chimpanzee and orangutan lineages. Nonetheless, human drumming is characteristically distinct from the drumming of other primates, as human drum bouts tend to be significantly more complex and longer in duration, can embody tempos independent of emotional or arousal states, can be performed synchronously with others, and are often practiced (i.e. rehearsed) outside of display contexts.