Sustained Running Behavior

The genus Homo underwent drastic anatomical and physiological difference as compared to other Hominidae. Endurance running demands high-energy utilization and requires the body to store and release energy in an efficient way. During the aerial phase of running, kinetic and potential energy from the body is stored as elastic strain energy, which is released when elastic recoil happens. Energy turnover of 70 kg at 4.5 m/s is 100 J, in which 35 J are stored in the Achilles tendon and 17 J are stored as strain energy in muscle. Human specific changes in foot morphology act like a spring to help human energy efficiency in running. Examples include the Achilles tendon and plantar arch, which are enlarged as compared to chimpanzee and early hominid ancestor such as Australopithecines. Longer legs as compared to body size provided a larger stride while running and walking. This adaptation is found in humans and Homo erectus (1.8 million years old), with a 50% increase in relative leg length as compared to Australopithecines. An adaptation preventing rotation of the anterior Tarsals while running is observed in humans as well as fossils of Homo habilis. There are slow (type-1), intermediate (type-2a) and fast twitch (type-2b) muscle fibers that form motor units of the muscle. Slow twitch muscles are teeming with mitochondria, capillaries, and myoglobin that ensure constant oxygen supply and energy to run aerobically. Intermediate fibers use aerobic characteristic but can contract faster. Fast twitch muscle provides short burst of anaerobically fueled running for sprinting. Most human muscles are a mixture of slow and fast twitching muscle, but endurance running might have favored slow twitching muscle. Soleus muscles in human, which are vital for walking, standing and running, are made up of type-I muscle fiber. In upright posture, the soleus is responsible for pumping venous blood back into the heart from the periphery. Lastly modern humans have more fore tendons.

Endurance running was facilitated by several major modifications outside of the feet as well. The gluteus maximus is enlarged and has a large attachment to the spinal base as compared to other apes. Interestingly, the gleutus maxima fire only when running which is advantageous as it helps with coordination between the upper and lower halves of the body while running. The shoulder muscle Trapezius density is lower in humans allowing free motion of the shoulders. An anti-bobble head adaptation helps to hold the head still, as well as efficiently turn the head while running. Femur, neck, knee joint and hip joint size were expanded, reducing damage taken from mid-stride impact shock. Similarly the pelvis has undergone a size reduction that reduces shock to the head. Elongation of the thorax created a larger gap between the thorax and pelvis helped to coordinate the upper and lower body while running. Additional changes include shoulder movement opposite to the hip, an enlarged occipital cranium, and modification to the Nuchal ligament. Finally, the Inner ear (ear canal), which helps an organism balance, has two lobes in human compared to one in apes, improving balancing while running.

Apart from anatomical modifications allowing for better running, there were multiple adaptations that improved overall thermoregulation. Thermoregulation, imperative to long distance running, is a rate-limiting factor for other mammals. This may have allowed humans to chase other animals with poor thermoregulation in mid-day (39 degree Celsius) until exhaustion. Endurance running demands high energy and water usage and results in salt loss in humans. The Homo genus, beginning with Homo erectus, adapted to compensate for the loss and makes it an efficient process through more sweat glands and reduced body hair as compared to apes. Additionally, these features improved body cooling. Finally, increased scalp sweating and reorganized cranial circulation allowed for optimized cooling of the brain.

Humans expend 50% more energy while running, as compared to other quadrupeds, but have optimized energetics, strength, stabilization & thermoregulation allowing for the unique task of endurance running.