CARTA Glossary

A membrane protein that signals when bound to adenosine. Caffeine chemically resembles adenosine and is an antagonist of this receptor.

A primary fermentation product of sugars in over-ripe fruit by yeasts and molds. The earliest alcoholic beverages produced by humans likely included mead and wines obtained from direct fermentation of diluted honey and fruit juices, respectively. This would have required the use of containers. Beer, on the other hand, requires a first step to produce fermentable simple sugars from starch. This can be achieved by malting, sprouting grain to obtain plant enzymes that are then used in mashing, the enzymatic digestion of starch into fermentable simple sugars. Malted grains and starch from tubers, banana, etc., can also be combined to produce alcoholic beverages. The use of symbiotic communities of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY, including Qu or koji) allows for the direct fermentation of grain and tuber starches to ethanol, such as in Chinese rice wine. Finally, distillation, a technology that is only a few thousand years, allows the concentration of alcohol into distilled spirits.

Consumption of alcohol that results in significant mental or physical health problems.

Molecules that bind to a site on a protein other than the substrate binding site and induce a change in the protein’s shape.

Psychostimulant drugs that alter the signaling by neurons and other cells. E.g., Adderall.

In invertebrates, a long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits information (as electrical impulses) to different neurons, muscles, and glands.

Subcortical nuclei in the base of the forebrains of vertebrates, including humans, which are involved with a variety of functions including control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, and routine behaviors or “habits” such as teeth grinding, eye movements, cognition, and emotion.

A light-based therapy to treat both seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and non-seasonal depression.

The majority of the nervous system that consists of the brain, spinal cord, retina, optic nerves, and olfactory epithelium. The CNS integrates sensory information and coordinates and influences the activity of the body in bilaterally symmetric animals (all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish).

A biological junction between neurons where signals are sent from cell to the next via release of chemicals (neurotransmitters).

Drugs that are used to improve memory, increase mental alertness, and concentration, and boost energy levels and wakefulness. E.g., amphetamines; nicotine; caffeine.

The waking state and awareness of existence.

A class of steroid hormones. E.g., cortisol.

A neurotransmitter that is involved in reward circuits, motor control, and in the release of various hormones.

A chronically relapsing disorder characterized by loss of control and compulsive drug seeking.

A state of unease or general dissatisfaction.

The use of individualized machine learning applied to functional MRI data to measure diverse mental states during meditation.

A chemical messenger that increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an electrical signal (depolarization of the membrane) called an action potential.

A class of membrane proteins that act as receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA and are mostly found on inhibitory neurons.

A hypothesis that offers a simple connectomic scheme based upon the contribution of neurons with long-range axons to conscious processing. Their reciprocal interactions contribute to the formation of a global workspace, broadcasting signals from the sensory periphery to the whole brain, thus yielding “conscious” experience. The GNW hypothesis privileges cortical pyramidal cells with long-range excitatory axons, particularly dense in prefrontal, temporoparietal, and cingulate regions, that, together with the relevant thalamocortical loops, reciprocally interconnect multiple specialized, automatic, and non-conscious processors. Another important feature of this hypothesis is that the GNW activates in a non-linear manner, called ‘‘ignition,’’ upon access to conscious processing. Ignition is characterized by the sudden, coherent, and exclusive activation of a subset of workspace neurons coding for the current conscious content, with the remainder of the workspace neurons being inhibited.

Increased sensitivity to pain.

A neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite.

A chemical messenger that decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an electrical signal called an action potential (see also excitatory neurotransmitter).

A potent inhalational anesthetic used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. Works via GABA receptors.

A severe and persistent low mood, profound sadness, or a sense of despair lasting at least two weeks but usually much longer.

The state of being conscious or aware.

A response or behavior that is strengthened by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus.

A chemical released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells.

A natural alkaloid and insecticide produced by several plant species (tobacco and jimson weed). It also functions as a central nervous system stimulant as an analog of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Depression that is not related to changes in the seasons.

A hormone and neurotransmitter that mobilizes the brain and body for action.

Depression that occurs during pregnancy.

Depression that occurs after pregnancy. 15% of women experience depression after childbirth, making this the most common complication of childbirth.

A short-acting medication, believed to work at least partly via GABA receptors, that is used for the starting and maintenance of general anesthesia, sedation for mechanically ventilated adults, and procedural sedation. Effects include decreased level of consciousness and a lack of memory for events.

A type of neuron found in the mammalian cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and amygdala of the brain. They are the most abundant excitatory cell type and receive both excitatory and inhibitory input.

A sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, and are often traditional to a community or religion. In psychology, a ritual is a repetitive behavior systematically used by a person to neutralize or prevent anxiety.

An act of religious worshiping through glossolalia, a practice in which people sing or utter words or speech-like sounds, often thought by believers to be languages unknown to the speaker. Glossolalia is practiced in Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity, as well as in other religions.

A hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and then transported to the blood to regulate extracellular fluid volume in the blood vessels and kidneys. It also plays a role in vasoconstriction. Vasopressin and oxytocin evolved from a single primordial neurohypophyseal hormone called vasotocin, which is present in lower vertebrates. Vasopressin, oxytocin, and their receptors are involved in regulating mating systems in several mammals.