CARTA Glossary

Alternative DNA sequence at the same locus (location on the chromosome)

Organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins and participate in a number of processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis. Amino acids are encoded by the genome as different three nucleotide codes.

A range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication.

The coordinated and mutually responsive interaction between individuals, where biological and behavioral rhythms align in a way that enhances communication and connection. This term is often used in the context of caregiver-infant interactions, where both parties’ physiological responses (such as heart rate, breathing patterns, or hormonal levels) and behavioral cues (such as eye contact, facial expressions, or movements) are synchronized.

A complex of DNA and proteins (histone and adaptor proteins) forming chromosomes.

The molecule of inheritance, which consists of sequences of the four nucleotide bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine.

The specific order of the nucleotide bases along a strand of DNA.

Biological information not encoded directly in DNA.

A term first coined in 1942 by the developmental biologist, Conrad Waddington, to explain how a singular genotype might produce variations in phenotype across development. He argued that some level of regulation must exists “above” or “over” genes to determine when and where they are expressed. Today the term refers to stable alterations in gene expression without changes to the underlying DNA sequence.

The process by which populations change over time through random variation and natural selection. Evolution occurs at the level of populations, not individuals, and involves genetic changes that are passed down through generations.

The lack of surety that a male is the biological father of a child. This uncertainty can arise in various social and biological contexts, especially when there are questions about sexual fidelity. Synonymous with paternal confidence.

A DNA sequence which encodes a specific function.

The study of genes and their inheritance.

The two alleles at one or more diploid loci.

Non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. Their function is to ensure homeostasis, form myelin sheaths, and provide support and protection for neurons. Glia make up ~50% of our brain cells.

The process by which sugar molecules (glycans) are added to proteins, lipids, or other organic molecules. This post-translational modification plays a crucial role in the structure, stability, and function of many biomolecules.

A covalent, post-translational modification (PTM) of histone proteins, which includes acetylation, glycosylation, methylation, phosphorylation, sumoylation, ubiquitylation. The PTMs made to histones can impact gene expression by altering chromatin structure or recruiting histone modifiers.

A signaling molecule in multicellular organisms that contributes to the regulation of physiology and behavior.

The practices and activities involved in ensuring the health, safety, and well-being of a newborn or young child, including feeding, hygiene, comfort, and emotional nurturing.

A complex physiological and psychological phenomenon driven by a combination of hormonal, neural, and biochemical processes. These processes involve several key brain regions and chemicals that influence attraction, bonding, and attachment between individuals. Love as a social concept is dependent on a variety of cultural, societal, and interpersonal dynamics.

A social or sexual practice where an individual has only one partner at a time. It can refer to both human relationships and the mating behavior of certain animal species.

The interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, particularly how the brain regulates hormone production and secretion. The neuroendocrine system is responsible for regulating various physiological processes such as growth, metabolism, stress response, reproduction, and mood. It functions through a network of signals, where neurons release chemicals that influence hormone secretion, and hormones in turn affect brain function and behavior.

RNA that is not translated into a protein. Important ncRNAs include transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), as well as small RNAs such as microRNAs, siRNAs, piRNAs, snoRNAs, snRNAs, exRNAs, scaRNAs and the long ncRNAs such as Xist and HOTAIR.

One of the four classes of major biomolecules. The overall name for DNA and RNA, which are composed of nucleotides. DNA is double-stranded and more stable while RNA is single-stranded and less stable.

The state of chromatin when DNA is less tightly packed and accessible to transcription factors, RNA polymerase, and regulatory proteins, allowing for gene expression. Open chromatin is found in regions of the genome that are actively being transcribed or are ready to be transcribed in a cell-type specific pattern.

A New World monkey species found in Central and South America. Owl monkeys are nocturnal and have large, round eyes adapted for seeing in low-light conditions, giving them an “owl-like” appearance. Owl monkeys are social animals that typically live in small family groups and form strong pair bonds. They primarily feed on fruits, insects, and small vertebrates. Also known as the “night monkey” and “mirikina.”

A protein found on the surface of cells that binds to the hormone oxytocin, triggering various physiological responses. These receptors are primarily located in the uterus, mammary glands, brain, and other tissues involved in reproduction and social interactions. The activation of oxytocin receptors helps coordinate functions like labor, emotional bonding, and even responses to stress. The gene encoding the oxytocin receptor is called OXTR.

The parental effort of fathers.

A male’s confidence in being the father of one or more offspring. Synonymous with father uncertainty.

A covalent chemical bond that forms between two amino acids, linking them together in a peptide or protein chain. It occurs when the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one amino acid reacts with the amino group (-NH2) of another amino acid, releasing a molecule of water (a process called dehydration or condensation).

A biochemical process in which a phosphate group (PO₄ ³-) is added to a molecule, typically a protein, by an enzyme called a kinase. This addition of a phosphate group often occurs at specific amino acids in the protein, such as serine, threonine, or tyrosine, and it can significantly change the protein’s structure, function, or activity. Phosphorylation is a crucial mechanism of cellular regulation and plays a key role in controlling various cellular processes.

A region of the brain involved in self- reflection, spatial awareness, and episodic memory. The precuneus is implicated in several psychiatric and neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, and depression.

A protein hormone primarily produced by the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain. It plays a key role in stimulating milk production in females after childbirth. Prolactin also has other functions in both men and women, including regulating reproductive health, immune system function, and metabolism.

The branch of biology that focuses on the processes, mechanisms, and systems involved in reproduction in living organisms. It studies how organisms produce offspring, including the biological, physiological, and genetic factors that govern sexual and asexual reproduction.

A small marine fish known for its distinct horse-like head and upright posture. They are typically found in shallow coastal waters, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and mangrove forests. Their bodies are covered in bony plates instead of scales, and they can change color to blend in with their surroundings. Seahorses are also notable for their reproductive behavior: in most seahorse species, the males carry the fertilized eggs in a brood pouch until they hatch, after which they “give birth” to live young.

The selection of and competition for a reproductive partner. Inter-sexual mate selection of the opposite sex is contrasted with intra-sexual competition with same sex members for opposite sex mates.

A technique that combines gene expression analysis with tissue architecture mapping. It allows for the examination of how genes are expressed in specific locations within a tissue sample, preserving the spatial context of cells. This method provides a detailed, high-resolution view of where and how genes are active in different parts of a tissue, enabling the study of complex biological processes, cellular interactions, and disease mechanisms.

A post-translational modification in which a small protein called SUMO (Small Ubiquitin-like Modifier) is covalently attached to a target protein. This process is similar to ubiquitylation, but instead of marking proteins for degradation, sumoylation typically regulates the function, stability, or localization of target proteins.

A primary male sex hormone, although it is also present in females in smaller amounts. It is produced primarily in the testes in men and in the ovaries in women, with small amounts produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes. Testosterone plays a crucial role in the development of male reproductive tissues, such as the testes and prostate, and is responsible for secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair, deepening of the voice, increased muscle mass, and bone density. In addition to its role in sexual development, testosterone is involved in regulating mood, energy levels, libido, and overall health. It also influences behaviors such as aggression and competitiveness. In both men and women, testosterone levels can fluctuate with age, and imbalances can lead to various health issues.

The first step in gene expression during which the nucleotide sequence of DNA is transcribed into an RNA molecule that can ultimately be translated into protein.

A biochemical process in which a small protein called ubiquitin is attached to a target protein. This attachment typically occurs on the lysine residues of the target protein and is facilitated by a series of enzymes known as the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Ubiquitylation serves as a signal for several key cellular processes.