CARTA Glossary

The “many forms,” or genetic variants, of a single gene that exist and are maintained in a population at a frequency of 1% or higher.

A vast grassland region in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, stretching from the northern shores of the Black Sea (Pontic) to the Caspian Sea. It forms the western part of the Eurasian Steppe and has played a crucial role in human migration, culture, and prehistoric population dynamics.

One of the four classes of major biomolecules. Proteins are molecules encoded by DNA sequences and composed of amino acids connected by peptide bonds. These range in size from a few amino acids (short peptides) to large molecules (long polypeptides) comprised of thousands of amino acids.

A molecule essential in gene coding, decoding, regulation, and expression. RNA consists of sequences of the four nucleotide bases: Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, and Cytosine. Types of RNA include messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), and other non-coding RNAs. Some viruses including Influenza A and SARS-CoV-2 have RNA genomes.

The linear order of the nucleotide building blocks, which encodes individual form and function.

A post-translational modification in which a small protein called SUMO (Small Ubiquitin-like Modifier) is covalently attached to a target protein. This process is similar to ubiquitylation, but instead of marking proteins for degradation, sumoylation typically regulates the function, stability, or localization of target proteins.

A close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic.

Proteins that initiate and regulate the transcription of genes. Transcription factors bind to specific sequences of DNA called regulatory elements, or other proteins that do so, and directly or indirectly affect the initiation of transcription. The activities of transcription factors determine where and when genes are expressed.

A biochemical process in which a small protein called ubiquitin is attached to a target protein. This attachment typically occurs on the lysine residues of the target protein and is facilitated by a series of enzymes known as the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Ubiquitylation serves as a signal for several key cellular processes.

Any agent which carries and transmits an infectious pathogen to another living organism. Most agents that act as vectors are living organisms.

A technique that determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome at a single time.