CARTA Glossary

A gene that encodes salivary amylase, an enzyme produced primarily in the salivary glands that begins the digestion of starch in the mouth by breaking it down into smaller carbohydrates. Humans vary considerably in the number of copies of the AMY1 gene they carry, and higher AMY1 copy number is generally associated with greater salivary amylase production. This variation has been investigated as a possible adaptation to differences in dietary starch consumption.

An enzyme that breaks down starch into glucose. It is the reason why starchy foods such as bread and potatoes have an appealing taste during chewing. Amylase is made by salivary glands (salivary amylase) and the pancreas (pancreatic amylase).

A branch of “old world” primates characterized by the lack of a tail due to a mutation of the TBXT gene. Apes consist of the families, Hylobatidae (“lesser apes”: gibbons and siamangs) and Hominidae (“great apes”: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans).

A group of diseases caused by atherosclerosis. ASCVD includes coronary heart disease, heart attack, ischemic stroke, and peripheral artery disease.

A genus of extinct hominins dating ~4 mya to 2 mya, and found primarily in eastern and southern Africa. Homo may have evolved from a late australopithecine. Australopithecine brain size is ~35% of the size of the modern human brain.  Most species were short in stature, although sexual dimorphism was pronounced. Some examples of australopithecines:

A. anamenis:  Kenya and Ethiopia. ~4 mya. 
A. afarensis: Eastern Africa. Most famous example is “Lucy.” ~3.9 mya to 2.9 mya. 
A. bahrelghazali: Central Africa.  ~3.6 mya
A. africanus: Southern Africa. ~3.3 mya to 2.1 mya.
A. garhi: Ethiopia. Possible transitional stage between Australopithecus and Homo. ~2.5 mya. 
A. boisei: East Africa. Robust australopithecine. There is debate as to which genus they belong, Australopithecus or Paranthropus. ~2.4 to 1.4 mya.
A. sediba: South Africa. Possible transitional stage between Australopithecus and Homo. ~2 mya. 

The proportion of an ingested nutrient that is absorbed and made available for physiological use.

A disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body. Cancer is considered “normal development spun out of control” – Steve Frank, from CARTA’s May 2025 symposium, Mismatch: Human Origins and Modern Disease.

An organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging.

One of the two species comprising the genus, Pan, having branched from bonobos ~1 million years ago. Sometimes referred to as “common chimpanzees”. Native to sub-Saharan Africa, chimpanzees are found in and around the Congo Basin (north of the Congo River) and throughout West Africa. Chimpanzees are divided into four subspecies, based on appearance and distribution. Compared to bonobos, chimpanzees are somewhat larger, more aggressive, and exhibit male social dominance.

A discrete strand of tightly packaged chromatin.

The evolutionary hypothesis proposed by Wrangham and Carmody that habitual cooking played a major role in human evolution by making food easier to digest, increasing the amount of energy available from food, and reducing the time and effort required to process and consume it. The hypothesis proposes that these energetic and nutritional advantages may have contributed to changes in human anatomy, physiology, behavior, and life history, including the evolution of our relatively large brains.

Behavior and norms that are shared, learned, and socially transmitted.

The human lineage lost the function of the CMAH gene over 2 million years ago that caused human cells to both lack Neu5Gc and carry an excess of Neu5Ac.

Calcified dental plaque, provides information on diet, disease, health, microbiome and protects the genetic information within the tooth from degradation.

The organs of the body that are involved in the breakdown and absorption of food, and elimination of wastes. This includes the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and accessory digestive organs such as the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

The process of artificial selection by humans for desired traits of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. This implies the complete control of the reproduction of those species.

The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate’s principal means of oxygen delivery from lungs or gills to all tissues of the body. RBCs of most mammals do not contain a nucleus with chromosomes.

The process by which populations change over time through random mutation and natural selection. Evolution occurs at the level of populations, not individuals, and involves genetic changes that are passed down through generations.

Microbial breakdown of organic matter occurring outside the body, prior to ingestion, in contrast to fermentation within the digestive tract.

A situation in which food is plentiful and easily available in a particular area, region, or society.

A digestive process in which plant materials are fermented in a specialized combination of stomach compartments together called the reticulorumen. In ruminants, the fermented cud of the reticulorumen is regurgitated and chewed again to further break down the plant material, a process called rumination. After rumination, the food and bacteria are finally digested in other stomach compartments, the omasum and abomsum (true stomach). Foregut fermentation also exists in some species that do not ruminate, such as leaf monkeys (colobines).

The process by which the information contained within a gene (nucleotide sequence) is used to direct RNA and/or protein synthesis and dictate cell function. Nearly all of the cells in the body contain identical genes, but only a subset of this information is used or expressed at any time. The genes expressed in a cell determine what that cell can do.

The study of genome structure/function.

One of the four classes of major biomolecules. Glycans consist of varying numbers of sugars (monosaccharides) attached to proteins or lipids or secreted as free glycans. Glycans are essential biomolecules whose functions can be divided into three broad categories: structural and modulatory properties (including nutrient storage and sequestration), specific recognition by other molecules, and molecular mimicry of host glycans.

A characterization of bacteria based on how they differentially react with a chemical stain (crystal violet) based on their cell wall constituents.

The ecosystem of microbes that live in the intestines.

A form of dietary iron bound within heme groups, found primarily in animal tissues, particularly meat, poultry, and seafood. It is generally absorbed more efficiently and is less affected by other dietary factors than non-heme iron.

A digestive process in which cellulose and other polysaccharides are broken down by symbiotic bacteria residing the colon of some mammalian species.

A classification of species comprising humans and our extinct relatives following the divergence from the common ancestor with chimpanzees.

The hominin species comprising all living humans. Meaning “wise man” in Latin, the name was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The earliest fossil evidence of Homo sapiens appears in Africa around 300 kya.

Since the evolutionary split between the human lineage and other great apes (6–7 million years ago), the human brain more than tripled in volume and increased in complexity. While early hominins such as Australopithecus afarensis (3.9 to 2.9 million years ago) had brain volumes of roughly 400–500 cubic centimeters, similar to modern chimpanzees, it was with the emergence of genus Homo around 2–2.5 million years ago that brain size began to increase more rapidly. Homo habilis (2.4 to 1.4 million years ago) had a cranial capacity of about 600–700 cc and Homo erectus (1.9 million years ago to 110 thousand years ago ) reached 900–1100 cc. In modern humans, average brain volume is approximately 1,300–1,400 cc. This expansion involved disproportionate growth of the cerebral cortex, particularly regions associated with language, abstract reasoning, planning, and social cognition. Changes in brain organization, connectivity, and prolonged developmental periods (including extended childhood) were also crucial. Together, these evolutionary modifications supported increasingly complex tool use, symbolic thought, culture, and social structures.

A subsistence strategy in which most or all food is obtained by foraging and is in contrast to agriculture, which rely mainly on domesticated species.

The capability of producing infection or spreading disease to others. Synonymous with communicable and transmissible.

An essential trace mineral required for oxygen transport, energy production, DNA synthesis, and normal immune and neurological function. Most of the body’s iron is found in hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen, and in myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle. Dietary iron occurs primarily as heme iron in animal foods and non-heme iron in plant foods and animal foods. The human body contains iron equivalent to a single 2-inch nail.

A protein that can bind to a glycan without catalyzing a modification of the glycan.

A substance required in relatively large amounts by living organisms: Fats, proteins, carbohydrates in an animal diet or chemical elements such as potassium, magnesium, calcium as required by plants.

A condition resulting from deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s intake or absorption of energy and nutrients. It encompasses undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and overweight or obesity associated with an unhealthy diet.

The soft fatty substance in the cavities of bones that produces red blood cells and white blood cells and platelets.

A microorganism, especially a bacterium causing disease or fermentation.

A chemical element or substance required in trace amounts for the normal growth and development of living organisms that the organism cannot synthesize itself. 

A simple sugar; the most basic unit of a carbohydrate or glycan.

An oxygen-binding protein found primarily in muscle cells that stores and facilitates the delivery of oxygen for use in muscle metabolism. It contains an iron-containing heme group, which gives muscle tissue its characteristic reddish color.

A common variant of sialic acid in many vertebrates that is not made by humans but can be incorporated from diets rich in red meat. Neu5Gc is derived from Neu5Ac by enzymatic addition of a single oxygen. In humans, the CMAH gene encoding the enzyme responsible for this conversion underwent a loss of function mutation over 2 million years ago.

One of the four classes of major biomolecules. The overall name for DNA and RNA, which are composed of nucleotides. DNA is double-stranded and more stable while RNA is single-stranded and less stable.

Excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems. Defined as a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30.0 or higher. Obesity rates in the US have reached 42%, up 12% in the last 10 years.

A close relationship between two organisms where one benefits at the expense of the other.

The absolute ability of an infectious agent to cause disease or damage in a host.

Some plants put starch in swollen, underground structures to survive seasonal challenges. Botanists recognize four types of underground storage organs: bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes. Common examples are potatoes, yams, carrots, and onions.