CARTA Glossary

The age at first reproduction. In modern hunter gatherers, this is roughly at 18 years old.

Seizure of prey from initial predators while the latter are still feeding.

A type of primate-specific transposable element, or “jumping gene,” that is roughly 300 base pairs long and exists in large copy number across all chromosomes of primate genomes (over 1 million copies in the human genome). Alu elements are also called Short Interspersed Elements (SINEs). They lack the ability to copy and paste themselves directly, but are able to “hitchhike” via the activity of Long Interspersed Elements (LINEs) that have retained the ability to copy and paste. Alu elements were considered to be a part of what has been called “junk DNA” because they do not code for the production of proteins, however they may serve some yet unknown function and definitely contribute to genomic plasticity, evolution, and disease.

A glycoprotein formed by immune cells (B-cells) that specifically recognize certain molecules (antigens) to neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. They exist in pentameric form (IgM), dimeric form (IgA) or single form (IgG, IgE, IgD), which consist of Y-shaped units that each have two antigen-binding pockets on one side and a region recognized by immune cells on the opposite. The tips of the “Y” can recognize specific antigens and lead to a successful immune response, while the bottom of the “y” regulates immune cell responses. Also known as immunoglobulin.

Blood serum that contains antibodies and is used via transfusion to impart immunity.

In invertebrates, a long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits information (as electrical impulses) to different neurons, muscles, and glands.

A type of white blood cell whose function in the adaptive immune system is to secrete antibodies. Additionally, B-cells present antigens and secrete cytokines. In mammals, B-cells mature in the bone marrow. B-cells express B-cell receptors on their cell membrane, which allow the B-cell to bind to a specific antigen, against which it will initiate an antibody response. These cells can create an almost infinite repertoire through recombination and shuffling.

The maintenance of a genetic polymorphism generated by balancing selection. The MHC system and ABO in humans are examples.

The ensemble of biological phenomena that supports and makes enculturation possible (e.g., cortical plasticity of the human brain and configuration of motor programs that make culturally invented practices, such as reading and writing, possible).

The system comprising the totality of antigens on erythrocytes, endothelial and other cells types, secreted molecules in blood and bodily secretions. (This is why they are also known as histo-blood groups - histo being Greek for “tissue”)

One of the two species comprising the genus, Pan, having branched from chimpanzees ~1 million years ago. Sometimes referred to as “pygmy chimpanzee.” Bonobos, compared to chimpanzees, are more gracile, have female social dominance, relatively long legs, pink lips, a dark face, a “tail-tuft” through adulthood, and parted long head hair. The species is omnivorous and inhabits primary and secondary forests, including seasonally inundated swamp forests. The bonobo is found in a 500,000 km² (190,000 sq mi) area of the Congo Basin, only south of the Congo River, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Due to political instability, little field work in their natural habitat has been performed. Most behavioral knowledge is a result of studies of captive bonobos.

A Siglec that functions as a transmembrane receptor on myeloid cells and some lymphoid cells.

The majority of the nervous system that consists of the brain, spinal cord, retina, optic nerves, and olfactory epithelium. The CNS integrates sensory information and coordinates and influences the activity of the body in bilaterally symmetric animals (all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish).

The green pigment that captures light energy and is essential for photosynthesis in cyanobacteria, algae, and plants.

Receptors expressed on a cell surface that bind ligands on the same cell surface.

Collective violence or violence between groups of individuals.

An illness that is transmittable from an infected person or animal to another person or animal through direct contact or indirectly via contaminated food, water, or a vector.

A phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated on the same or different chromosome and the number of repeats in the genome varies between individuals in the human population. Such repeats can include functional genes.

The organs of the body that are involved in the breakdown and absorption of food, and elimination of wastes. This includes the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and accessory digestive organs such as the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

The outermost of the three primary germ layers formed in embryonic development and develops into the nervous system and skin.

The gradual acquisition of cultural traits (the characteristics and norms of a culture or group) by an individual or another culture.

The cell type that forms the interior lining of blood and lymphatic vessels, and controls the transfer of materials, including white blood cells, into and out of the bloodstream.

The cell type that lines the surfaces of the body, including skin, mucus membranes (airways, gastrointestinal tract, reproductive tract), urinary tract, and organs to provide protection.

Organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes.

The structural network of enzymes, glycoproteins, and collagen that support surrounding cells.

A digestive process in which plant materials are fermented in a specialized combination of stomach compartments together called the reticulorumen. In ruminants, the fermented cud of the reticulorumen is regurgitated and chewed again to further break down the plant material, a process called rumination. After rumination, the food is finally digested in other stomach compartments, the omasum and abomsum (true stomach). Foregut fermentation also exists in some species that do not ruminate, such as leaf monkeys.

Non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. Their function is to ensure homeostasis, form myelin sheaths, and provide support and protection for neurons. Glia make up ~50% of our brain cells.

A type of a lipid (fat) with an attached glycan that functions to maintain the stability of the cell membrane and to facilitate cellular recognition. Glycolipids are crucial in immune response and tissue formation.

Proteins with enzymatic functions that are involved in adding monosaccharides to other molecules.

A map of informative subsets of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found along a stretch of a chromosome used to identify blocks of genetic variation existing along human chromosomes.

A digestive process in which cellulose and other polysaccharides are broken down by symbiotic bacteria residing the colon of some mammalian species.

A living organism on or in which a parasite, pathogen, commensal or symbiont lives (see Parasitism).

A subsistence strategy in which most or all food is obtained by foraging and is in contrast to agriculture, which rely mainly on domesticated species.

A class of lectins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. e.g., Siglecs

The biological defense system of an organism that protects against disease.

A type of protein that forms antibodies and other receptors both on cell surfaces and as soluble proteins of vertebrates. Comprised of a massive superfamily, immunoglobulins perform many different functions, including recognition, binding, or adhesion processes of cells.

A conserved sequence of amino acids, including phosphorylated tyrosine, that is found intracellularly in the cytoplasmic domains of many inhibitory receptors.

The capability of producing infection or spreading disease to others. Synonymous with communicable and transmissible.

Temporal coordination of behavior, physiology, neural activity, and/or mental representations between individuals.

The rough discrimination of collections of discrete items above the subitizing range, whose numerosities usually differ by a substantial amount.

Word meanings.

Long interspersed nuclear elements class 1 (LINE1) is a type of transposable element, or “jumping gene,” that randomly copies and inserts itself into different genomic locations through reverse transcription (conversion of RNA into DNA). These active LINE1s can interrupt the genome through insertions, deletions, rearrangements, and copy number variations. LINE1 activity has contributed to the instability and evolution of genomes. As such, they are tightly regulated in the germline, however, they are controlled differently in apes and humans. LINE1 retrotransposons make up to ~17% of the human genome. While the majority are inactive in the human genome, there are roughly 80-100 that have retained the ability to retrotranspose with considerable variation between individuals.

Thin-walled vessels (tubes) of the lymphatic system that are complementary to the cardiovascular system and are devoted to the movement of lymphatic fluid.

A set of closely linked polymorphic genes that code for cell surface proteins (MHC molecules) that assist the adaptive immune system in detection of foreign molecules.

The retention of exclusive reproductive access to a mate by attempting to restrict the access of others and discouraging the mate from seeking other sexual opportunities.

The time of life when female menstruation naturally and permanently ceases.

The middle of the three primary germ layers formed in embryonic development and develops into the muscles of the cardiac and skeletal systems, the skeleton and connective tissue, blood vessels and cells, and some other internal organs such as the kidneys and gonads.

A group of two or more atoms covalently bonded together to form the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.

An insulating layer of fatty tissue (wrapped cell membrane) that protects nerve cells, especially their axons.