CARTA Glossary

Displaying 301 - 400 of 1063 defined words
Word Definition Related Vocabulary
Epidemiology

The branch of medicine that studies and analyzes the incidence, distribution, patterns, determinants, and possible control of diseases and other health factors.

Epigenetic

Biological information not encoded directly in DNA.

Epigenetic regulation

Processes that alter gene activity without changes to the underlying DNA sequence. Primary mechanisms of epigenetic regulation include DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA. Epigenetic regulation is reversible and can be influence by environmental factors, lifestyle, and other external conditions.

Epigenetics

A term first coined in 1942 by the developmental biologist, Conrad Waddington, to explain how a singular genotype might produce variations in phenotype across development. He argued that some level of regulation must exists “above” or “over” genes to determine when and where they are expressed. Today the term refers to stable alterations in gene expression without changes to the underlying DNA sequence.

Epigenome

Molecular modifications of the DNA and its associated histone proteins, affecting its function.

Epipaleolithic-Neolithic transformation (ENT)

The cultural, social and economic transformation from Paleolithic mobile foraging peoples to Neolithic super-communities that became the first large-scale sedentary societies in southwest Asia. The transformation is marked by accelerating cultural and technical innovation, accompanied by large-scale demographic, cultural, social, and economic change. The ENT is seen as an inflection point in the rate of human cultural evolution, leading on to socio-economic and political inequality, urbanism, kingdoms and empires in the following millennia.

Epithelial cells

The cell type that lines the surfaces of the body, including skin, mucus membranes (airways, gastrointestinal tract, reproductive tract), urinary tract, and organs to provide protection.

Epithelial tissue

1. A tissue consisting of one or more layers of compactly joined cells of various types and sizes that cover a surface or line a cavity. 2. Pertaining to or involving the outer layer of the skin. Also called ‘epithelium.’

Erythrocytes (red blood cells - RBCs)

The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate’s principal means of oxygen delivery from lungs or gills to all tissues of the body. Erythrocytes of most mammals do not contain a nucleus with chromosomes.

Estradiol

An estrogen steroid hormone and the major female sex hormone that is involved in the regulation of reproductive cycles, the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, the development and maintenance of female reproductive tissues, and has important effects on bone, fat, skin, liver, and the brain. Estradiol also has important roles in males, but is produced in much lower levels.

Estrogen

The category of sex hormones that includes estrone, estradiol, and estriol that are involved in the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. Estrogen is the precursor to testosterone.

Estrus (or Oestrus)

Cyclical periods of sexual receptivity and fertility. From the Greek word, oistros, for “gadfly/horsefly,” with the additional meaning of “frenzy.”

Ethnographic analogy

A methodological and analytical process by archaeologists for reconstructing features of a prehistoric society and culture that leaves no direct archaeological imprint.

Ethnology

The practice of comparing and contrasting the features of multiple ethnohistorically-documented human societies.

Etomidate

An intravenous agent used for general anesthesia and sedation for short procedures that suppresses corticosteroid synthesis.

Euchromatin

Open chromatin, allowing information to be read.

Eukaryotes

Organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes.

Eumelanin

The most common type of melanin found in human skin and hair. There are two types, brown eumelanin and black eumelanin, which are involved in pigmentation. Deficiency causes albinism.

Eusociality

A form of social structure featuring cooperative brood care, overlapping generations of adults, and a reproductive and non-reproductive division of labor. Eusociality is observed in ants, bees, wasps, termites, the naked mole-rats, and some shrimp. Humans may engage in a weak form of eusociality but this is still debated.

Eutrophication

Excess nutrient accumulation in bodies of water that cause phytoplankton.

EvoDevoSocio (Evolution/Development/Society)

The EvoDevo approach stresses that evolution yields biological mechanisms for both development and adult function of members of a species. The EvoDevoSocio framework adds that development is shaped not only by the genome but also by the physical and (especially in humans) the social environment in which the individual develops. To close the loop, humans in turn shape the environment and so cultural evolution has played a crucial role in changing the social, physical and increasingly symbolic and technological environments in which most humans now develop.

Evolution

The process by which populations change over time through random variation and natural selection. Evolution occurs at the level of populations, not individuals, and involves genetic changes that are passed down through generations.

Evolutionary Medicine

The application of modern evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease.

Evolutionary neuroscience

The study of the evolution and natural history of nervous system structure, functions, and emergent properties.

Evolutionary psychology

A theoretical approach to psychology that seeks evolutionary connections to human psychological traits such as cognition and language.

Evron Quarry, Israel

An archaeological site in Western Galilee, Israel, with evidence for hominin occupation up to 1 million years ago and tools and fire use dating to around 800,000 years ago.

Excision

The cutting and removal of some of the tissues of the female genitalia (clitoral glans and labia minora). Excision is more extensive than clitoridectomy.  Also called Type 2 female genital modification and is another term for ‘female circumcision.’

Excitatory neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an electrical signal (depolarization of the membrane) called an action potential.

Exon

Sequences at a locus that encode parts of a protein.

Exosome

A type of extracellular vesicle that contain constituents (protein, DNA, and RNA) of the cells that secrete them. They are taken up by distant cells, where they can affect cell function and behavior.

Extended amygdala

A paired macrostructure in the brain that is involved in reward cognition.

Extracellular matrix

The structural network of enzymes, glycoproteins, and collagen that support surrounding cells.

Falciparum Malaria

Human-specific (malignant) malaria caused by the protozoan parasite, Plasmodium falciparum.

Falémé Valley

Eastern Senegal. Excavations have led to the the discovery of paleolithic occupations from different periods, cultures, and lithic technologies.  

False Beliefs

The ability to recognize that others can have beliefs about the world that are diverging. An important component of Theory of Mind.

Fascia

A fibrous connective tissue forming a membrane that covers, supports, and separates muscles. Fascia also unites the skin with underlying tissue.

Father

A male parent, typically referring to the biological or legal male figure who contributes to the creation and/ or upbringing of a child. The term “father” can also be used more broadly to describe a paternal figure in various cultural, religious, or metaphorical contexts, such as the “father” of a nation or a profession.

Father uncertainty

The lack of surety that a male is the biological father of a child. This uncertainty can arise in various social and biological contexts, especially when there are questions about sexual fidelity. Synonymous with paternal confidence.

Fatty Acid

A molecule composed of a long chain of lipid-carboxylic acid, which is either saturated (single bonds between the components of the fatty acid chain) or unsaturated (at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain).

Fecundability

The probability of achieving a pregnancy within a mentrsual cycle.

Female Genital Cosmetic Surgeries (FGCS)

Medical plastic surgery of the female genitalia, such as labiaplasty.

Female Genital Modification (FGM)

A collective term for all non-medically indicated procedures involving the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs.

Female- vs. male -biased fertile sex ratios

The relative numbers of individuals capable of having children. In female-biased situations, males face less competition for mating opportunities. In male-biased situations, these opportunities are lower, thus greater male-male competition for each one.

Fiction

Any story where the teller and the listener both know it is untrue and is also not meant to be taken as true. Fiction can be distinguished from true narratives, as well as from myth, lies, mistakes, and unwitting falsehoods. Fiction includes most drama, feature films, comics, and poetry that tells invented stories as well as novels and short stories. But not all fictions need be narratives.

Fistula (in body piercing)

The tunnel of epithelial tissue that surrounds a healed piercing channel.

Fitness (Darwinian)

The relative likelihood that an allele will be represented in future generations (relative to other alleles in the same population). Compare with Reproductive Success.

Fixed Alleles

Replaced all other alleles in a population.

Flora

Microorganisms including bacteria, protozoa, and fungi that are found on or in specific areas of the body.

Folklore

Stories, sayings, dances, material culture, and other customs shared by a group of people.

Follicular phase

The first part of the menstrual cycle, including menstruation and the period prior to ovulation.

Fomite

An inanimate object or substance that is capable of transmitting infectious organisms from one individual to another.

Food abundance A situation in which food is plentiful and easily available in a particular area, region, or society.
Footfall

The point in time when a foot (or hand in the forelimb) first touches the ground.

Footfall sequence

The distribution of footsteps, relative to one another; some gaits may be defined by footfall sequence.

Foraging

Searching for wild food or provisions as opposed to cultivating food crops or breeding livestock.

Fore limb

The front limbs and feet of a quadrupedal animal (also, the upper limbs/arms of a human).

Foregut fermentation

A digestive process in which plant materials are fermented in a specialized combination of stomach compartments together called the reticulorumen. In ruminants, the fermented cud of the reticulorumen is regurgitated and chewed again to further break down the plant material, a process called rumination. After rumination, the food is finally digested in other stomach compartments, the omasum and abomsum (true stomach). Foregut fermentation also exists in some species that do not ruminate, such as leaf monkeys.

Fos

A protein that is rapidly synthesized in neurons when they become active and therefore is used as a marker of neuron activity and is involved in regulating gene expression.

FOXP2 A gene in humans that encodes for a transcription factor protein and is involved in the production of speech.
Fragmented Maternal Care

A measure of abnormal mothering in rodents. Fragmentation score reflects disruptions in the temporal pattern of care typically displayed by rodents. High fragmentation scores indicate shorter nursing bouts and generally erratic behavior.

Freehand piercing

The act of piercing without the use of forceps.

Frontal lobe (brain)

The largest of the four major lobes of the brain in mammals, and is located at the front of each hemisphere. It is devoted to action such as skeletal movement, ocular movement, speech control, the expression of emotions. In humans, the largest part of the frontal cortex is the prefrontal cortex.

Frontoparietal Networks

Human frontal and parietal lobes form a network that is crucially involved in the selection of sensory contents by attention.

Functional DNA

Encodes biological information.
~2% of all DNA: Codes for proteins.
~80% of all DNA: Regulates gene activity.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A neuroimaging technique for measuring and mapping brain activity that is noninvasive and safe. The phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is used to generate a signal that can be mapped and turned into an image of brain activity.

Funeral

Intentional, ritualistic disposal of the deceased. May include behaviors such as placement of grave goods (artefacts and/or natural materials such as flowers) and positioning of interred body(ies).

GABA receptors

A class of membrane proteins that act as receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA and are mostly found on inhibitory neurons.

Gait

How a person or animal moves; different categories of movement are different gaits (e.g. a run vs. a walk, a trot vs. a gallop).

Galago

A number of species of prosimians that are small, nocturnal, and native to continental Africa. Also known as bushbabies. Galagos often nest in tree hollows during the day. Chimpanzees have been observed hunting with “spears” for nested galagos, and they are also hunted by Hadza hunter-gatherers.

Gametes

Mature haploid sex cells that can unite to form a diploid zygote.

Gardnerella

A genus of Gram-variable-staining facultative anaerobic bacteria of which Gardnerella vaginalis is the only species.

Gardnerella vaginalis

A facultatively anaerobic Gram-variable rod that is involved, together with many other bacteria, in bacterial vaginosis in some women as a result of a disruption in the normal vaginal microflora.

Gastroenteritis

Inflammation of the stomach and small intestine typically caused by a virus, but can also be caused by bacteria, parasites, and fungi. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.

GATA binding protein 3 (GATA3)

A gene that encodes a protein in the GATA family of transcription factors. GATA3 plays an important role in endothelial cell biology and in allergy and immunity against worm infections. In humans, defects in GATA3 cause hypoparathyroidism with sensorineural deafness and renal dysplasia.

Gauge

1. A standard of dimensions or measurement – in body jewelry, the thickness. 2. Slang for the act of “stretching” a piercing.

Gauges

Slang term for body jewelry, especially plugs or tunnels worn in stretched ear piercings

Gauging

A slang term for stretching a piercing

Gene

A DNA sequence which encodes a specific function.

Gene conversion

A type of concerted evolution where one gene on a chromosome can “paste” its sequence over a neighboring gene of high sequence similarity such that the sequences become identical after the conversion event. This phenomenon is common between similar genes located on the same chromosome region.

Gene expression

The process by which the information contained within a gene (nucleotide sequence) is used to direct RNA and/or protein synthesis and dictate cell function. Nearly all of the cells in the body contain identical genes, but only a subset of this information is used or expressed at any time. The genes expressed in a cell determine what that cell can do.

Gene Flow

Movement of alleles between populations via mating.

Gene pool

The total of all genes and their variants (alleles) of a population of a species.

Gene Regulation

Alterations of gene expression/activity.

Gene-Culture Co-Evolution Theory

A branch of theoretical population genetics that models the transmission of genes and cultural traits from one generation to the next, exploring how they interact. Also known as “biocultural evolution” or “biological enculturation” (feedback between culture and biology).

General anesthesia

A combination of medications that put you in a sleep-like state before medical procedures.

Genetic Adaptation

A biological characteristic with a heritable basis that improves reproduction and/or survival and results from evolution by natural selection.

Genetic diversity

The total of heritable traits within a species.

Genetic Drift

Change in allele frequencies, including fixation and loss, by chance.

Genetic load

The presence of deleterious gene variants (including recessive variants) in a population.

Genetic variant

A version of a DNA sequence that differs from others found at the same locus. For example, the difference can consist in a single base pair (as in single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNP) or in the deletion/insertion of a DNA base(s). See: indel.

Genetics

The study of genes and their inheritance.

Genital modification

The deliberate, permanent alteration of the male (penis, testicles) or female (vulva) genitals.

Genius

A person who is exceptionally intelligent or creative, either generally or in some particular respect.

Genome

The totality of DNA in a cell. Also refers to the DNA sequence that typifies an individual or species.

Genome Wide Association Study (GWAS)

An approach for “gene mapping” in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs are tested statistically for genetic associations with a phenotype.

Genomic Imprinting

Modification of the genome at the level of DNA (e.g. methylation) or its packaging into chromatin (histone tail modification via phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination or glycosylation).

Genomics

The study of genome structure/function.

Genotype

The two alleles at one or more diploid loci.

Genotyping

Characterizing genetic variants at one or more loci.

Genus

A taxonomic rank used in biological classification of living and fossil organisms to group closely related species. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name plus species name forms the binomial species name (e.g. Homo sapiens).

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