CARTA Glossary

Stories, sayings, dances, material culture, and other customs shared by a group of people.

An inanimate object or substance that is capable of transmitting infectious organisms from one individual to another.

The distribution of footsteps, relative to one another; some gaits may be defined by footfall sequence.

The front limbs and feet of a quadrupedal animal (also, the upper limbs/arms of a human).

A protein that is rapidly synthesized in neurons when they become active and therefore is used as a marker of neuron activity and is involved in regulating gene expression.

A measure of abnormal mothering in rodents. Fragmentation score reflects disruptions in the temporal pattern of care typically displayed by rodents. High fragmentation scores indicate shorter nursing bouts and generally erratic behavior.

The largest of the four major lobes of the brain in mammals, and is located at the front of each hemisphere. It is devoted to action such as skeletal movement, ocular movement, speech control, the expression of emotions. In humans, the largest part of the frontal cortex is the prefrontal cortex.

A neuroimaging technique for measuring and mapping brain activity that is noninvasive and safe. The phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is used to generate a signal that can be mapped and turned into an image of brain activity.

A class of membrane proteins that act as receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA and are mostly found on inhibitory neurons.

A number of species of prosimians that are small, nocturnal, and native to continental Africa. Also known as bushbabies. Galagos often nest in tree hollows during the day. Chimpanzees have been observed hunting with “spears” for nested galagos, and they are also hunted by Hadza hunter-gatherers.

A genus of Gram-variable-staining facultative anaerobic bacteria of which Gardnerella vaginalis is the only species.

Inflammation of the stomach and small intestine typically caused by a virus, but can also be caused by bacteria, parasites, and fungi. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.

1. A standard of dimensions or measurement – in body jewelry, the thickness. 2. Slang for the act of “stretching” a piercing.

A slang term for stretching a piercing

The process by which the information contained within a gene (nucleotide sequence) is used to direct protein synthesis and dictate cell function. Nearly all of the cells in the body contain identical genes, but only a subset of this information is used or expressed at any time. The genes expressed in a cell determine what that cell can do.

A branch of theoretical population genetics that models the transmission of genes and cultural traits from one generation to the next, exploring how they interact. Also known as “biocultural evolution” or “biological enculturation” (feedback between culture and biology).

A biological characteristic with a heritable basis that improves reproduction and/or survival and results from evolution by natural selection.

Change in allele frequencies, including fixation and loss, by chance.

A version of a DNA sequence that differs from others found at the same locus. For example, the difference can consist in a single base pair (as in single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNP) or in the deletion/insertion of a DNA base(s). See: indel.

An approach for “gene mapping” in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs are tested statistically for genetic associations with a phenotype.

A taxonomic rank used in biological classification of living and fossil organisms to group closely related species. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name plus species name forms the binomial species name (e.g. Homo sapiens).

Non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. Their function is to ensure homeostasis, form myelin sheaths, and provide support and protection for neurons. Glia make up ~50% of our brain cells.

The biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted by fixation (gaseous nitrogen is converted into ammonia, which can be taken up by plants), ammonification (organic nitrogen from decaying animal and plant matter is converted into ammonium by bacteria and fungi), nitrification (ammonium is converted into nitrate by soil bacteria), and denitrification (nitrate is reduced into gaseous nitrogen). This cycle is central to the biogeochemistry of the Earth. Oceans also have an enormous nitrogen cycle.

One of the four classes of major biomolecules. Glycans consist of varying numbers of sugars (monosaccharides) attached to proteins or lipids or secreted as free glycans. Glycans are essential biomolecules whose functions can be divided into three broad categories: structural and modulatory properties (including nutrient storage and sequestration), specific recognition by other molecules, and molecular mimicry of host glycans.

A class of proteins with covalently attached glycans. Glycoproteins play a part in important cellular functions like embryonic development, cell-to-cell recognition, cell adhesion, and immune functions.

An archeological site in Southeastern Turkey. Göbekli Tepe is a settlement dating to c. 9,500-8,000 BCE and is famous for its “monumental architecture” of large circular structures containing stone pillars (megaliths) decorated with reliefs. The structures were built by hunter-gatherers during the pre-pottery Neolithic and represent one of the first examples of monumental architecture.

An explanation of the post- menopausal life stage of human females whereby the existence of grandmothers serves as a biological and social adaptive advantage for humans. Post-reproductive life stages are non-existent among non-human primates, so it is hypothesized that humans evolved to have grandmothers and grandmothering to have individuals who are free to invest their energy into the offspring of their children. This off-loads the reproductive cost of parenting through social kin-networking, and off-set the resource cost of brain- building as parents are freed to provision resources. Increased resource procurement may reduce the inter-birth interval by allowing for earlier weening, which in turn increases offspring production potential, passes down generational knowledge, and increase social networks. In doing so, the grandmother ensures the survival of her genes in subsequent generations. The extended post-reproduction life stage of grandmothers likely had the added output of producing grandfathers, who also provide benefits to the extended family, as well as their own extended reproductive time line that competes with subsequent generations.

The development and dissemination of crop variants and technology between the 1950s and 1960s that increased agricultural production around the world. Also known as the third agricultural revolution.

The release of polluting gasses resulting from human activity, such as burning fossil fuels that contribute to greenhouse effect.

A rapid-onset muscle weakness caused by an autoimmune response in which the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the peripheral nervous system. Initial symptoms typically begin in the feet and hands with changes in sensation, pain, and muscle weakness, which then spreads to the arms and upper body of both sides. Sometimes this immune dysfunction is triggered by an infection or, less commonly by surgery, and rarely by vaccination.

A ridge on the cerebral cortex that, along with surrounding sulci (furrows) creates the folded appearance of the brain in humans and other mammals.

A prehistoric stone tool with two faces and is usually made from flint, basalt, sandstone, quartzite, or chert.

A map of informative subsets of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found along a stretch of a chromosome used to identify blocks of genetic variation existing along human chromosomes.

Stem cells that can become different types of blood cells.

A protein complex within red blood cells (RBCs) that binds to oxygen molecules in the lungs for delivery to tissues throughout the body. The same complex also binds carbon dioxide (CO₂) and carries it back to the lungs.

A gene that provides instructions for making beta-globin, a protein component of hemoglobin. Sickle Cell Anemia is a disorder caused by a mutation in the HBB gene.

A statistic used in the fields of breeding and genetics that estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population.

Have two different alleles at a locus.

The back limbs and feet of a quadrupedal animal (also, the lower limbs/legs of a human).

A part of the limbic system that plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory, and in spatial memory that enables navigation. Humans and other vertebrates have two hippocampi, one in each side of the brain. It is named after its resemblance to the shape of a sea horse (hippocampus in Latin).

A drug that inhibits histone deacetylases or molecules involved in modifying histone proteins. Histone deacetylases typically function to reduce chromatin accessibility and gene expression. Therefore, administration of this drug allows for higher levels of gene expression.

The current geological epoch, from about 11,700 years ago (after the end of the last Ice Age cycle) to the present that is marked by globally warmer and more stable climates.

An extinct archaic species of the genus Homo dating to ~2.1 to 1.5 mya. H. habilis means “handy man” and was named so because of its association with stone tools.  H. habilis has intermediate morphology between Australopithecus and Homo erectus. There is ongoing debate if H. habilis should be moved to the Australopithecus genus.  Initial discovery was made by Mary and Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania between 1962 and 1964.

The hominin species comprising all living humans. Meaning “wise man” in Latin, the name was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The earliest fossil evidence of Homo sapiens appears in Africa around 300 kya (see Jebel Irhoud Hominins).

Similarity in DNA sequence or phenotype that has evolved independently.

A signaling molecule in multicellular organisms that contributes to the regulation of physiology and behavior.

A lithic technology cultural period in the Middle Stone Age in Africa named after the Howieson’s Poort Shelter archeological site near Grahamstown, South Africa. Dates range from ~65.8 kya to 59.5 kya. Examples include composite weapons hafted with ochre and gum compound glue and microlith blades, bone arrows, and needles.

The specialized connections composed of axons linking Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in the human brain and is a major anatomic feature supporting language function in humans.

A subsistence strategy in which most or all food is obtained by foraging and is in contrast to agriculture, which rely mainly on domesticated species.