CARTA Glossary

Non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. Their function is to ensure homeostasis, form myelin sheaths, and provide support and protection for neurons. Glia make up ~50% of our brain cells.

The biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted by fixation (gaseous nitrogen is converted into ammonia, which can be taken up by plants), ammonification (organic nitrogen from decaying animal and plant matter is converted into ammonium by bacteria and fungi), nitrification (ammonium is converted into nitrate by soil bacteria), and denitrification (nitrate is reduced into gaseous nitrogen). This cycle is central to the biogeochemistry of the Earth. Oceans also have an enormous nitrogen cycle.

One of the four classes of major biomolecules. Glycans consist of varying numbers of sugars (monosaccharides) attached to proteins or lipids or secreted as free glycans. Glycans are essential biomolecules whose functions can be divided into three broad categories: structural and modulatory properties (including nutrient storage and sequestration), specific recognition by other molecules, and molecular mimicry of host glycans.

A class of proteins with covalently attached glycans. Glycoproteins play a part in important cellular functions like embryonic development, cell-to-cell recognition, cell adhesion, and immune functions.

Proteins with enzymatic functions that are involved in adding monosaccharides to other molecules.

A characterization of bacteria based on how they differentially react with a chemical stain (crystal violet) based on their cell wall constituents.

A major component of the central nervous system that includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control. Gray matter development peaks the third decade in humans.

The development and dissemination of crop variants and technology between the 1950s and 1960s that increased agricultural production around the world. Also known as the third agricultural revolution.

The release of polluting gasses resulting from human activity, such as burning fossil fuels that contribute to greenhouse effect.

A rapid-onset muscle weakness caused by an autoimmune response in which the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the peripheral nervous system. Initial symptoms typically begin in the feet and hands with changes in sensation, pain, and muscle weakness, which then spreads to the arms and upper body of both sides. Sometimes this immune dysfunction is triggered by an infection or, less commonly by surgery, and rarely by vaccination.

A ridge on the cerebral cortex that, along with surrounding sulci (furrows) creates the folded appearance of the brain in humans and other mammals.

A prehistoric stone tool with two faces and is usually made from flint, basalt, sandstone, quartzite, or chert.

One set of unpaired chromosomes.

A map of informative subsets of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found along a stretch of a chromosome used to identify blocks of genetic variation existing along human chromosomes.

Differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, and health care as experienced by socially disadvantaged populations.

One of two paired chromosomes is affected by a deletion. The other chromosome is intact. 

The abnormal hemoglobin protein in red blood cells (RBCs) that causes RBCs to assume a sickle, or crescent shape.

Sometimes also called “herd protection” or “indirect immunity,” this is when most of a population is immune to a specific contagious disease, which slows its spread to others that are not immune. However, because the level needed to reach this kind of immunity is so high (about 80-90% of the population), it invariably means that a lot of individuals must be infected (and often can die) before herd immunity can be achieved.

Tightly wrapped and inactive chromatin.

Any problem solving strategy that involves the usage of generalizations as mental shortcuts to quickly come to adequate solutions for complex problems.

A digestive process in which cellulose and other polysaccharides are broken down by symbiotic bacteria residing the colon of some mammalian species.

Meaning “tissue-related”, these blood group antigens originally evolved on epithelial cells prior to expression on erythrocytes (red blood cells). ABO is a classic example of a histo-blood group.

A covalent, post-translational modification (PTM) of histone proteins, which includes acetylation, glycosylation, methylation, phosphorylation, sumoylation, ubiquitylation. The PTMs made to histones can impact gene expression by altering chromatin structure or recruiting histone modifiers.

The current geological epoch, from about 11,700 years ago (after the end of the last Ice Age cycle) to the present that is marked by globally warmer and more stable climates.

The state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living organisms.

A classification of species comprising humans and our extinct relatives following the divergence from the common ancestor with chimpanzees.

An extinct hominin species with fossil evidence from at least 1.9 million years to 70 thousand years ago and found from Africa to Indonesia. H. erectus may have been the first hominin to leave Africa. H. erectus DNA may be retrievable from other species due to archaic admixture.

An extinct hominin species whose fossil evidence dates to 335-236 kya. An assemblage of 15 H. naledi skeletons were first found in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star cave system in 2013 (since then, a second chamber has been found with H. naledi skeletons). The fossils possess a mix of “archaic” traits similar to genus Australopithecus (e.g. cranial and pelvic morphology) and “modern” traits characteristic of genus Homo (e.g. hand morphology). H. naledi lived contemporaneously with anatomically modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans but is not likely a direct ancestors of humans living today.

Similarity in DNA or phenotype because of shared evolutionary history from a common ancestor.

Have two identical alleles at a locus

A living organism on or in which a parasite, pathogen, commensal or symbiont lives (see Parasitism).

A set of 49 segments of the human genome that are conserved throughout vertebrate evolution but are strikingly different in humans. They are named according to their degree of difference between humans and chimpanzees. Some of these highly mutated areas may contribute to human-specific traits while others may represent “loss of function” mutations, possibly due to the action of biased gene conversion rather than adaptive evolution.

A protein-coding gene that is present in humans but absent in other non-human ape species.

An explanation for the dietary shift to meat procurement during human evolution as a catalyst favoring a suite of transformative biological and behavioral adaptations.

An enzyme involved in the first step of aerobic oxidation of organic compounds.

Increased sensitivity to pain.

Having a decreased tendency to provoke an allergic reaction.

A diminished capacity for pleasure.

A class of lectins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. e.g., Siglecs

A sign that shares perceived physical properties with the thing it refers to (its “referent”) (Kluender, 2020).

Behavior copying. This term has been used to mean everything from social learning in general to the reproduction of action intentions but is now most commonly used in the narrow sense of copying the form or topography of observed movements.

Cells that are part of the immune system. Most develop from stem cells in the bone marrow and become different types of white blood cells (the microglia of the brain originate in the yolk sack during embryonic development). Immune cells are broadly classified into innate and adaptive immune cells. Innate immune cells include neutrophils, basophils, mast cells, monocytes and eosinophils, dendritic cells, and macrophages. Adaptive immune cells include B-cells and T-cells. T-Cells and Natural Killer T-cells mediate important dialogues between innate (rapid) and adaptive (slower) immune responses. B-cells and T-cells can form long- term immunological memory.

The capability of multicellular organisms to resist harmful microorganisms from entering it and compromising its biological systems. The balanced state of adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases. It critically relies on recognition of both self and non-self.

A type of protein that forms antibodies and other receptors both on cell surfaces and as soluble proteins of vertebrates. Comprised of a massive superfamily, immunoglobulins perform many different functions, including recognition, binding, or adhesion processes of cells.

A highly conserved region in the cytoplasmic domain of signaling chains of adapter proteins and receptors and typically result in activation of inflammatory responses.

Long non-coding microRNA

A sign that depends for its reference on the physical presence of the thing that it refers (its “referent”) to at some point in space and time (e.g. smoke, a weather vane, a bullet hole, your index finger) (Kluender, 2020).

The transition from agrarian and handcraft manufacture of goods to large scale industrial production starting 1760 in Great Britain and the United States.